Ripples in the industry

The Cloud hype has already had a ripple effect on the hardware and software industry and many industry pundits are predicating it to play a major role in altering the skyline of the industry. Dominant database and software companies, like Oracle and SAP, seem to be sitting directly across the fence from the trend and may have to alter future products. Microsoft is a prime example of how traditional software vendors are up to the task of evolving for the cloud environment. Microsoft Azure is a flexible cloud platform, extending cloud elasticity to Microsoft's heavyweight developmental products. It is a promising development that may bring significant cloud products from rival developers in the future.

Clouds on the horizon

Cloud computing is poised to alter the skyline in the tech industry.

Over the years, growth in processor speed has moved on at a fairly decent pace, but as time goes by, many users are turning to the internet for their computing needs - and as such, cloud computing seems to be the logical progression of the internet's triumphant growth. A very simple definition of cloud , at this stage, would be "access to software and hardware capabilities remotely over the internet." Now, rather than just processing power limitations, internet bandwidth has become the new parameter for interesting applications on the computer.The foremost defining feature of cloud computing is its service model. The Cloud Substitutes software and hardware capabilities or 'products', and offers them as 'services'. Products and services fundamentally differ in the type of solution they offer - products can provide high value, given that they are used repeatedly over time, covering the cost of purchase. Services offer better value to experimental buyers or those who do not have such extensive usage requirements. It is the difference between renting a car and buying it. Another basic difference is that products are only valuable if the buying party has the capability to efficiently use it. Services are generally offered by professionals who are experts in the field of offering and ensuring better quality of service - especially to those who may not be able to efficiently use a similar product themselves. The Cloud is able to generate service models that are generally cost-effective and of good quality, carving a wide base of customers who previously had to live with buying software and hardware in spite of unfavorable economic conditions.

The second important aspect is virtualization of resources. among the technology's various benefits for cloud computing, it also allows service providers to offer users the flexibility to access and transport data from an internet-enabled computer, mobile phone, or any other computing platform.

Third, cloud-based services can prove to he economically sound. By providing reliable service, like server hosting, to thousands of clients, a cloud-based service provider can cut costs with virtualization and improve service quality while still turning a reasonable profit.

Fourth, cloud computing can help create a competitive mini-ecosystem within the tech industry. Intense competition can fuel research and lower costs. This encourages newer, more innovative products and solutions.

Clouds on the horizon

Cloud computing is poised to alter the skyline in the tech industry.

Over the years, growth in processor speed has moved on at a fairly decent pace, but as time goes by, many users are turning to the internet for their computing needs - and as such, cloud computing seems to be the logical progression of the internet's triumphant growth. A very simple definition of cloud , at this stage, would be "access to software and hardware capabilities remotely over the internet." Now, rather than just processing power limitations, internet bandwidth has become the new parameter for interesting applications on the computer.The foremost defining feature of cloud computing is its service model. The Cloud Substitutes software and hardware capabilities or 'products', and offers them as 'services'. Products and services fundamentally differ in the type of solution they offer - products can provide high value, given that they are used repeatedly over time, covering the cost of purchase. Services offer better value to experimental buyers or those who do not have such extensive usage requirements. It is the difference between renting a car and buying it. Another basic difference is that products are only valuable if the buying party has the capability to efficiently use it. Services are generally offered by professionals who are experts in the field of offering and ensuring better quality of service - especially to those who may not be able to efficiently use a similar product themselves. The Cloud is able to generate service models that are generally cost-effective and of good quality, carving a wide base of customers who previously had to live with buying software and hardware in spite of unfavorable economic conditions.

The second important aspect is virtualization of resources. among the technology's various benefits for cloud computing, it also allows service providers to offer users the flexibility to access and transport data from an internet-enabled computer, mobile phone, or any other computing platform.

Third, cloud-based services can prove to he economically sound. By providing reliable service, like server hosting, to thousands of clients, a cloud-based service provider can cut costs with virtualization and improve service quality while still turning a reasonable profit.

Fourth, cloud computing can help create a competitive mini-ecosystem within the tech industry. Intense competition can fuel research and lower costs. This encourages newer, more innovative products and solutions.

What Is Internet and the World Wide Web?

There is little historical precedent for the swift and dramatic growth of the Internet, which was originally a limited scientific communication network developed by the U.S. government to facilitate cooperation among federal researchers and the university research community. With its rapid adoption by the private sector, the Internet has remained an important research tool, and it is also becoming a vital ingredient in maintaining and increasing the scientific and commercial leadership of the United States. In the twenty-first century, the Internet will provide a powerful and versatile environment for business, education, culture, entertainment, health care and public health. Sight, sound, and even touch will be integrated through powerful computers, displays, and networks. People will use this environment to work, study, bank, shop, entertain, visit with each other, and communicate with their health care providers. Whether at the office, at home, or traveling, the environment and its interface will be largely the same, and security, reliability, and privacy will be built in. Benefits of this dramatically different environment will include a more agile economy, improved health care (particularly in rural areas), less stress on ecosystems, easy access to lifelong and distance learning, a greater choice of places to live and work, and more opportunities to participate in the community, the nation, and the world.

Internet and WWW Acronyms. People that communicate with each other electronically may not have the same "platform." "Cross-platform" means that people do not have to use the same kind of operating system to access files on a remote system. In order to access the Web there are two basic mechanisms: (1) using the telephone system to link to another computer or network that is connected to the Internet, and (2) connecting to a network; and from there into the Internet. An Internet service provider (ISP) may be required to access the Internet. An important factor regarding Internet access is bandwidth, which determines how much data a connection can accommodate and the speed at which data can be accessed.

Information on the Web is generally written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which is a text-based markup language that describes the structure of a Web document's content and some of its properties. It can also be viewed as a way of representing text and linking it to other resources, such as multimedia files, graphic files, still or dynamic images files, and sound files. HTML contains the information or text to be displayed and the control needed for its display or playback.

Navigation Tools. Prior to the use of Web browsers, there were several Internet navigation tools that required more user expertise than the modern browser, including:

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a cross-platform protocol for transferring files to and from computers anywhere on the Internet.
• Gopher, a tool for browsing files on the Internet.
• Usenet, a worldwide messaging system through which anyone can read and post articles to a group of individuals who share the same interests.
• Wide Area Information Server (WAIS), one of a handful of Internet search tools that can be spread across the network to scour multiple archives and handle multiple data formats.
• Hyperlink (also called link), a pointer— from text, from a picture or a graphic, or from an image map—to a page or file on the World Wide Web; hyperlinks are the primary way to navigate between Web pages and among Web sites.

Today, a Web browser is the main piece of software required by the end user to find information through Internet. Some of the most popular browsers are: Lynx, Mosaic, Netscape Navigator/Communicator, and Internet Explorer. Lynx is a text-only Web browser; it cannot display graphical or multimedia elements. Mosaic, a graphical Web browser, was the first "full-featured" graphical browser for the Web. It was developed by a team of programmers at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). One of these programmers, Marc Andreesen, later formed Netscape. Netscape Navigator/Communicator is one of the most popular Web browsers. Internet Explorer is Microsoft's Web browser.

Web Resources. A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a Web resource that describes the protocols needed to access a particular resource or site on the Web, and then point to the resource's Internet location. URLs are, in short, used to locate information on the Web.

Normally the URL is composed of six parts:

1. The protocol or data source (i.e., ftp://, gopher://, news://, telnet://, WAIS://, http://)
2. The domain name (for the Web server where the desired information resides)
3. The port address
4. The directory path (location of the Web page in the Web server's file system)
5. The object name
6. The spot (precise location within the file)

Protocols are the rules and formats that govern the methods by which computers communicate over a network. Protocols link clients and servers together and handle requests and responses, including making a connection, making a request, and the closing of the connection. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the full set of standard protocols used on the Internet. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an Internet protocol specifically for the World Wide Web. It provides a way for Web clients and servers to communicate primarily through the exchange of messages.

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) is a technique designed to insert attachments within individual e-mail files. MIME allows a Web server to deliver multiple forms of data to the user in a single transfer. Also, when creating a Web page, it could include text files as well as nontext files, such as sound, graphics, still images, and videos.

Intersection and Information Technology and Public Health. The applications of IT in public health are numerous and varied. One particularly important example, however, is the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Using GIS, public health officials can create very effective procedures to do their tasks using information technology. Doing a feedback loop they can: measure, plan, act, and measure again. In this manner, officials can identify a problem (e.g., cancer) by measuring data from a registry. Further, from the health care providers community, they can select a target population (e.g., breast cancer) and develop an implementation strategy for an intervention plan with the health care providers. Finally, by measuring again, GIS allows public health officials to evaluate the impact of the implementation plan on that data registry.

GIS is thus an information technology which can help improve health care and public health in many areas such as disease tracking, outbreak investigations, geostatistical analysis, and routing of health workers. As a means of tracking, residential zip codes of patients who appear at different clinics can be plotted with signs and symptoms of a selected diagnosis (e.g., upper respiratory infections [URI]). URIs are a marker for some toxic biological agents. Furthermore, community outbreaks of infectious diseases such as measles can be quickly analyzed then using GIS tools. Color shading can indicate areas with certain levels of morbidity probability or likeliness of getting sick. Areas that require immediate interventions such as immunizations can be depicted by a different shade. Geostatistical analysis is one of the most powerful tools available to a public health department. With a relatively small number of sampling points, predictive maps can be quickly produced to provide the likely extent of threats to public health. This mode of forecasting allows for the effective and efficient allocation of health care resources in a community.

GIS can also help create disease focused databases representing patients from a specific userdefined geographic area. In this fashion, the impact of a toxic release or exposure against a target population can be measured. GIS is a powerful tool for supplying immediate visualization of the likely geographic exposures, allows an analyst to examine the various variables that might effect the "fallout" of sprayings and to estimate its extent. Through the use of Computer Aided Design tools and GIS, medical centers as well as clinics are increasingly monitoring their patient care environments to assist managers evaluate risk for highly contagious diseases and implement control and isolation programs.

GIS helps health organizations visualizing diagnostic and geographic information simultaneously and dynamically. Over 14,000 ICD 9 and 10 codes describe medical diagnosis, treatment, and medical events worldwide. Public health clinics, hospitals, managed care, and health insurers use this application to conduct data mining on very large clinical and administrative data warehouses.

In public health education, GIS can be an analytical tool of choice for health promotions staff when deciding where to target the public health messages and warnings. GIS is also used to create interactive maps for health organizations required to publish information to the public. Health organizations require interactive maps depicting geographical areas and regions where infectious diseases and threats to the public's health are imminent.

What Is Internet and the World Wide Web?

There is little historical precedent for the swift and dramatic growth of the Internet, which was originally a limited scientific communication network developed by the U.S. government to facilitate cooperation among federal researchers and the university research community. With its rapid adoption by the private sector, the Internet has remained an important research tool, and it is also becoming a vital ingredient in maintaining and increasing the scientific and commercial leadership of the United States. In the twenty-first century, the Internet will provide a powerful and versatile environment for business, education, culture, entertainment, health care and public health. Sight, sound, and even touch will be integrated through powerful computers, displays, and networks. People will use this environment to work, study, bank, shop, entertain, visit with each other, and communicate with their health care providers. Whether at the office, at home, or traveling, the environment and its interface will be largely the same, and security, reliability, and privacy will be built in. Benefits of this dramatically different environment will include a more agile economy, improved health care (particularly in rural areas), less stress on ecosystems, easy access to lifelong and distance learning, a greater choice of places to live and work, and more opportunities to participate in the community, the nation, and the world.

Internet and WWW Acronyms. People that communicate with each other electronically may not have the same "platform." "Cross-platform" means that people do not have to use the same kind of operating system to access files on a remote system. In order to access the Web there are two basic mechanisms: (1) using the telephone system to link to another computer or network that is connected to the Internet, and (2) connecting to a network; and from there into the Internet. An Internet service provider (ISP) may be required to access the Internet. An important factor regarding Internet access is bandwidth, which determines how much data a connection can accommodate and the speed at which data can be accessed.

Information on the Web is generally written in Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which is a text-based markup language that describes the structure of a Web document's content and some of its properties. It can also be viewed as a way of representing text and linking it to other resources, such as multimedia files, graphic files, still or dynamic images files, and sound files. HTML contains the information or text to be displayed and the control needed for its display or playback.

Navigation Tools. Prior to the use of Web browsers, there were several Internet navigation tools that required more user expertise than the modern browser, including:

• File Transfer Protocol (FTP), a cross-platform protocol for transferring files to and from computers anywhere on the Internet.
• Gopher, a tool for browsing files on the Internet.
• Usenet, a worldwide messaging system through which anyone can read and post articles to a group of individuals who share the same interests.
• Wide Area Information Server (WAIS), one of a handful of Internet search tools that can be spread across the network to scour multiple archives and handle multiple data formats.
• Hyperlink (also called link), a pointer— from text, from a picture or a graphic, or from an image map—to a page or file on the World Wide Web; hyperlinks are the primary way to navigate between Web pages and among Web sites.

Today, a Web browser is the main piece of software required by the end user to find information through Internet. Some of the most popular browsers are: Lynx, Mosaic, Netscape Navigator/Communicator, and Internet Explorer. Lynx is a text-only Web browser; it cannot display graphical or multimedia elements. Mosaic, a graphical Web browser, was the first "full-featured" graphical browser for the Web. It was developed by a team of programmers at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). One of these programmers, Marc Andreesen, later formed Netscape. Netscape Navigator/Communicator is one of the most popular Web browsers. Internet Explorer is Microsoft's Web browser.

Web Resources. A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a Web resource that describes the protocols needed to access a particular resource or site on the Web, and then point to the resource's Internet location. URLs are, in short, used to locate information on the Web.

Normally the URL is composed of six parts:

1. The protocol or data source (i.e., ftp://, gopher://, news://, telnet://, WAIS://, http://)
2. The domain name (for the Web server where the desired information resides)
3. The port address
4. The directory path (location of the Web page in the Web server's file system)
5. The object name
6. The spot (precise location within the file)

Protocols are the rules and formats that govern the methods by which computers communicate over a network. Protocols link clients and servers together and handle requests and responses, including making a connection, making a request, and the closing of the connection. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) is the full set of standard protocols used on the Internet. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is an Internet protocol specifically for the World Wide Web. It provides a way for Web clients and servers to communicate primarily through the exchange of messages.

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension (MIME) is a technique designed to insert attachments within individual e-mail files. MIME allows a Web server to deliver multiple forms of data to the user in a single transfer. Also, when creating a Web page, it could include text files as well as nontext files, such as sound, graphics, still images, and videos.

Intersection and Information Technology and Public Health. The applications of IT in public health are numerous and varied. One particularly important example, however, is the use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Using GIS, public health officials can create very effective procedures to do their tasks using information technology. Doing a feedback loop they can: measure, plan, act, and measure again. In this manner, officials can identify a problem (e.g., cancer) by measuring data from a registry. Further, from the health care providers community, they can select a target population (e.g., breast cancer) and develop an implementation strategy for an intervention plan with the health care providers. Finally, by measuring again, GIS allows public health officials to evaluate the impact of the implementation plan on that data registry.

GIS is thus an information technology which can help improve health care and public health in many areas such as disease tracking, outbreak investigations, geostatistical analysis, and routing of health workers. As a means of tracking, residential zip codes of patients who appear at different clinics can be plotted with signs and symptoms of a selected diagnosis (e.g., upper respiratory infections [URI]). URIs are a marker for some toxic biological agents. Furthermore, community outbreaks of infectious diseases such as measles can be quickly analyzed then using GIS tools. Color shading can indicate areas with certain levels of morbidity probability or likeliness of getting sick. Areas that require immediate interventions such as immunizations can be depicted by a different shade. Geostatistical analysis is one of the most powerful tools available to a public health department. With a relatively small number of sampling points, predictive maps can be quickly produced to provide the likely extent of threats to public health. This mode of forecasting allows for the effective and efficient allocation of health care resources in a community.

GIS can also help create disease focused databases representing patients from a specific userdefined geographic area. In this fashion, the impact of a toxic release or exposure against a target population can be measured. GIS is a powerful tool for supplying immediate visualization of the likely geographic exposures, allows an analyst to examine the various variables that might effect the "fallout" of sprayings and to estimate its extent. Through the use of Computer Aided Design tools and GIS, medical centers as well as clinics are increasingly monitoring their patient care environments to assist managers evaluate risk for highly contagious diseases and implement control and isolation programs.

GIS helps health organizations visualizing diagnostic and geographic information simultaneously and dynamically. Over 14,000 ICD 9 and 10 codes describe medical diagnosis, treatment, and medical events worldwide. Public health clinics, hospitals, managed care, and health insurers use this application to conduct data mining on very large clinical and administrative data warehouses.

In public health education, GIS can be an analytical tool of choice for health promotions staff when deciding where to target the public health messages and warnings. GIS is also used to create interactive maps for health organizations required to publish information to the public. Health organizations require interactive maps depicting geographical areas and regions where infectious diseases and threats to the public's health are imminent.

What Is Databases and What Is Database Management Systems?

A database (DB) system is a computer-based record keeping system used to record and maintain certain types of information that have a significant value to some organization. A DB is a repository of stored data, which in general is both integrated and shared. Between the physical database and the users of the system is a layer of software, usually called the database management system (DBMS). All requests from the users to access the DB are handled by the DBMS.

When trying to organize the data and information within an organization, the DB helps the user in entering, storing, and retrieving it, and when trying to integrate all or part of the information of the enterprise the DB becomes a key player. Normally, within the DB, information is organized into data elements, fields, records, and files. In a system such as a hospital information system (HIS), a patient name is a data element or a field; a record could be related to that patient's visit on a particular date (e.g., date, diagnoses, treatments, charges, medications, tests) at a particular time; and a file would contain all the information from all the visits for that patient. An HIS DB will include not only patient files, but it could also have accounting information related to charges, inventory, payroll, and personnel records. With DB systems, different people can have access to different parts of the system, so, for example, not all personnel employees will have access to laboratory results.

The DBMS organization and definition of the contents of the individual data elements, fields, records, and files are provided via a machine-readable definition called "schema." This creates an independence of physical location from logical location of the content of a DB. The DBMS not only "manages the DB" but also allows for entering, editing, and retrieving results. The DBMS helps with the integration of data coming from multiple sources. The user can also access and retrieve specific types of information via queries.

A DB provides an organization with centralized control of its operational data. Some of the advantages of having centralized (versus distributed) control of the data are:

• Redundancies can be reduced.
• Inconsistencies can be avoided.
• Data can be shared.
• Standards can be enforced.
• Privacy, confidentiality, authenticity, and security restrictions can be applied.
• Integrity can be maintained.
• Conflicting requirements (among users) can be balanced (for the enterprise).
• Data is easier to support (the single repository, the application, and the endusers).

Due to technological advancements, databases today are much more complex than a few decades ago. They contain "multimedia" information, such as text, graphics, scanned images from documents, clinical images from all modalities (X-rays, ultra-sound, MRI, CT scan), still and dynamic studies, and sound. When doing population studies, the creation of data "warehouses" is necessary, and data "mining" techniques are used to extrapolate results. In public health, the data needed for a study can reside in a small computer, in a local area network (LAN), or in a wide area network (WAN). In order to use information that is geographically distributed (and/or with distributed users) it is important to learn techniques for data integration and data communications. Because of the continuing fusion of computers and communications, this is the fastest changing area within information technology.

What Is Databases and What Is Database Management Systems?

A database (DB) system is a computer-based record keeping system used to record and maintain certain types of information that have a significant value to some organization. A DB is a repository of stored data, which in general is both integrated and shared. Between the physical database and the users of the system is a layer of software, usually called the database management system (DBMS). All requests from the users to access the DB are handled by the DBMS.

When trying to organize the data and information within an organization, the DB helps the user in entering, storing, and retrieving it, and when trying to integrate all or part of the information of the enterprise the DB becomes a key player. Normally, within the DB, information is organized into data elements, fields, records, and files. In a system such as a hospital information system (HIS), a patient name is a data element or a field; a record could be related to that patient's visit on a particular date (e.g., date, diagnoses, treatments, charges, medications, tests) at a particular time; and a file would contain all the information from all the visits for that patient. An HIS DB will include not only patient files, but it could also have accounting information related to charges, inventory, payroll, and personnel records. With DB systems, different people can have access to different parts of the system, so, for example, not all personnel employees will have access to laboratory results.

The DBMS organization and definition of the contents of the individual data elements, fields, records, and files are provided via a machine-readable definition called "schema." This creates an independence of physical location from logical location of the content of a DB. The DBMS not only "manages the DB" but also allows for entering, editing, and retrieving results. The DBMS helps with the integration of data coming from multiple sources. The user can also access and retrieve specific types of information via queries.

A DB provides an organization with centralized control of its operational data. Some of the advantages of having centralized (versus distributed) control of the data are:

• Redundancies can be reduced.
• Inconsistencies can be avoided.
• Data can be shared.
• Standards can be enforced.
• Privacy, confidentiality, authenticity, and security restrictions can be applied.
• Integrity can be maintained.
• Conflicting requirements (among users) can be balanced (for the enterprise).
• Data is easier to support (the single repository, the application, and the endusers).

Due to technological advancements, databases today are much more complex than a few decades ago. They contain "multimedia" information, such as text, graphics, scanned images from documents, clinical images from all modalities (X-rays, ultra-sound, MRI, CT scan), still and dynamic studies, and sound. When doing population studies, the creation of data "warehouses" is necessary, and data "mining" techniques are used to extrapolate results. In public health, the data needed for a study can reside in a small computer, in a local area network (LAN), or in a wide area network (WAN). In order to use information that is geographically distributed (and/or with distributed users) it is important to learn techniques for data integration and data communications. Because of the continuing fusion of computers and communications, this is the fastest changing area within information technology.

What Is Data Processing, What Is Data Representation?

When people communicate by writing in any language, the symbols used (the letters of the alphabet, numerals, and punctuation marks) convey information. The symbols themselves are not information, but representations of information. Data in an EDPS must be expressed symbolically so that the machines can interpret the information presented by humans. In general, the symbols that are read and interpreted by a machine differ from those used by people. The designer of a computer system determines the nature and meaning of a particular set of symbols that can be read and interpreted by the system. The actual data that is used by these systems is (or was in the past) presented as holes on punched cards or paper tape, as spots on magnetic tape, as bits (binary digit) or bytes of information in a disk, diskette, CD-ROM, or optical disk; as magnetic-ink characters; as pixels in display-screen images; as points in plotted graphs; or as communication-network signals.

In many instances, communication occurs between machines. This communication can be a direct exchange of data in electronic form over cables, wires, radio waves, infrared, satellites or even wireless devices such as cellular phones, pagers, and hand-held personal organizers and/or notebooks. It can also be an exchange where the recorded or stored output of one device or system becomes the input of another machine or system.

In the computer, data is recorded electronically. The presence or absence of a signal in specific circuitry represents data in the computer the same way that the absence or presence of a punched hole represented data in a punched card. If we think of an ordinary lightbulb being either on or off, we could define its operation as a binary mode. That means that at any given time the lightbulb can be in only one of two possible conditions. This is known as a "binary state." In a computer, transistors are conducting or nonconducting; magnetic materials are magnetized in one direction or in the opposite direction; a switch or relay is either on or off, a specific voltage is either present or absent. These are all binary states. Representing data within the computer is accomplished by assigning a specific value to each binary indication or group of binary indications. Binary signals can be used to represent both instructions and data; consequently the basic language of the computer is based primarily on the "binary number system."

A binary method of notation is usually used to illustrate binary indications. This method uses only two symbols: 0 and 1, where 0 and 1 represent the absence and presence of an assigned value, respectively. These symbols, or binary digits, are called "bits." A group of eight bits is known as a "byte," and a group of 32 bits (4 bytes) is known as a "word." The bit positions within a byte or a word have place values related to the binary number system. In the binary number system the values of these symbols are determined by their positions in a multidigit numeral. The position values are based on the right to left progression of powers having a base of 2 (2⁰, 2¹, 2², 2³), commonly employed within digital computers. For example, if there are four light bulbs next to each other numbered 4, 3, 2, and 1 and 1 and 3 are "on" and 2 and 4 are "off," the binary notation is 0101.

The system of expressing decimal digits as an equivalent binary value is known as Binary Coded Decimal (BCD). In this code, all characters (64 characters can be coded), including alphabetic, numeric, and special signs, are represented using six positions of binary notation (plus a parity bit position). The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) uses eight binary positions for each character format plus a position for parity checking (256 characters can be coded). The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a seven-bit code that offers 128 possible characters. ASCII was developed by users of communications and data processing equipment as an attempt to standardize machine-to-machine and system-to-system communication.

Computer Number Systems and Conversions. Representing a decimal number in binary numbers may require very long strings of ones and zeros. The hexadecimal system is used as a shorthand method to represent them. The base of this system is 16, and the symbols used are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. In other words, F is 15 in decimal notation and 1 1 1 1 in binary.

Programming Languages Techniques. Assembler languages are closer to machine instructions than to human language, and having to express logical procedures, arithmetical calculations, and textual manipulations in these languages affects a programmer's productivity because they are so cumbersome. There are many higher-level programming languages, such as ALGOL, BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, and Pascal, that are much closer to human means of expression.

A programmer writes a source program in a human-readable programming language. A compiler translates these English-like statements into instructions that the computer can execute—such instructions are called an "object program." Through added library routines the computer does further processing of the object program, executes it, and an "output" is produced. There are some "optimizing compilers" that automatically correct obvious inefficiencies in source programming. Sometimes, with the use of "interpreters," debugging can be done to a program as it executes the user program piece by piece. MUMPS, LISP, and APL are interpreters used for this purpose in the health care environment, artificial intelligence, and mathematics fields, respectively. Because of the time and costs associated with development, it is generally not cost effective in today's environment to develop an application package, but rather buy it (if available) from a vendor. The costs are thus spread among thousands of users. Typical applications packages used for public health purposes are SAS and SPSS (for biostatistics) and ArcView/GIS (for Geographical Information Systems). In addition there are some data manipulation languages (e.g., Oracle and dBASE) that were written with this purpose. A database manipulation language (DML) is a special sublanguage used for handling data storage and retrieval in a database system. Using a data definition language (DDL), programmers can organize and structure data on secondary storage devices.

Data Acquisition. Capturing and entering data into a computer is expensive. Direct acquisition of data avoids the need for people to read values and measure, encode, and/or enter the data. Automated data acquisition can help eliminate errors and speed up the procedure. Sensors connected to a patient convert biological signals into electrical signals that are transmitted into a computer. Many times these signals (e.g., ECG, blood pressure, heart rate) are analog signals, and in order to be stored into a digital signal a conversion needs to occur. This process is called analog to digital conversion (ADC).

What Is Data Processing, What Is Data Representation?

When people communicate by writing in any language, the symbols used (the letters of the alphabet, numerals, and punctuation marks) convey information. The symbols themselves are not information, but representations of information. Data in an EDPS must be expressed symbolically so that the machines can interpret the information presented by humans. In general, the symbols that are read and interpreted by a machine differ from those used by people. The designer of a computer system determines the nature and meaning of a particular set of symbols that can be read and interpreted by the system. The actual data that is used by these systems is (or was in the past) presented as holes on punched cards or paper tape, as spots on magnetic tape, as bits (binary digit) or bytes of information in a disk, diskette, CD-ROM, or optical disk; as magnetic-ink characters; as pixels in display-screen images; as points in plotted graphs; or as communication-network signals.

In many instances, communication occurs between machines. This communication can be a direct exchange of data in electronic form over cables, wires, radio waves, infrared, satellites or even wireless devices such as cellular phones, pagers, and hand-held personal organizers and/or notebooks. It can also be an exchange where the recorded or stored output of one device or system becomes the input of another machine or system.

In the computer, data is recorded electronically. The presence or absence of a signal in specific circuitry represents data in the computer the same way that the absence or presence of a punched hole represented data in a punched card. If we think of an ordinary lightbulb being either on or off, we could define its operation as a binary mode. That means that at any given time the lightbulb can be in only one of two possible conditions. This is known as a "binary state." In a computer, transistors are conducting or nonconducting; magnetic materials are magnetized in one direction or in the opposite direction; a switch or relay is either on or off, a specific voltage is either present or absent. These are all binary states. Representing data within the computer is accomplished by assigning a specific value to each binary indication or group of binary indications. Binary signals can be used to represent both instructions and data; consequently the basic language of the computer is based primarily on the "binary number system."

A binary method of notation is usually used to illustrate binary indications. This method uses only two symbols: 0 and 1, where 0 and 1 represent the absence and presence of an assigned value, respectively. These symbols, or binary digits, are called "bits." A group of eight bits is known as a "byte," and a group of 32 bits (4 bytes) is known as a "word." The bit positions within a byte or a word have place values related to the binary number system. In the binary number system the values of these symbols are determined by their positions in a multidigit numeral. The position values are based on the right to left progression of powers having a base of 2 (2⁰, 2¹, 2², 2³), commonly employed within digital computers. For example, if there are four light bulbs next to each other numbered 4, 3, 2, and 1 and 1 and 3 are "on" and 2 and 4 are "off," the binary notation is 0101.

The system of expressing decimal digits as an equivalent binary value is known as Binary Coded Decimal (BCD). In this code, all characters (64 characters can be coded), including alphabetic, numeric, and special signs, are represented using six positions of binary notation (plus a parity bit position). The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) uses eight binary positions for each character format plus a position for parity checking (256 characters can be coded). The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a seven-bit code that offers 128 possible characters. ASCII was developed by users of communications and data processing equipment as an attempt to standardize machine-to-machine and system-to-system communication.

Computer Number Systems and Conversions. Representing a decimal number in binary numbers may require very long strings of ones and zeros. The hexadecimal system is used as a shorthand method to represent them. The base of this system is 16, and the symbols used are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E and F. In other words, F is 15 in decimal notation and 1 1 1 1 in binary.

Programming Languages Techniques. Assembler languages are closer to machine instructions than to human language, and having to express logical procedures, arithmetical calculations, and textual manipulations in these languages affects a programmer's productivity because they are so cumbersome. There are many higher-level programming languages, such as ALGOL, BASIC, COBOL, FORTRAN, and Pascal, that are much closer to human means of expression.

A programmer writes a source program in a human-readable programming language. A compiler translates these English-like statements into instructions that the computer can execute—such instructions are called an "object program." Through added library routines the computer does further processing of the object program, executes it, and an "output" is produced. There are some "optimizing compilers" that automatically correct obvious inefficiencies in source programming. Sometimes, with the use of "interpreters," debugging can be done to a program as it executes the user program piece by piece. MUMPS, LISP, and APL are interpreters used for this purpose in the health care environment, artificial intelligence, and mathematics fields, respectively. Because of the time and costs associated with development, it is generally not cost effective in today's environment to develop an application package, but rather buy it (if available) from a vendor. The costs are thus spread among thousands of users. Typical applications packages used for public health purposes are SAS and SPSS (for biostatistics) and ArcView/GIS (for Geographical Information Systems). In addition there are some data manipulation languages (e.g., Oracle and dBASE) that were written with this purpose. A database manipulation language (DML) is a special sublanguage used for handling data storage and retrieval in a database system. Using a data definition language (DDL), programmers can organize and structure data on secondary storage devices.

Data Acquisition. Capturing and entering data into a computer is expensive. Direct acquisition of data avoids the need for people to read values and measure, encode, and/or enter the data. Automated data acquisition can help eliminate errors and speed up the procedure. Sensors connected to a patient convert biological signals into electrical signals that are transmitted into a computer. Many times these signals (e.g., ECG, blood pressure, heart rate) are analog signals, and in order to be stored into a digital signal a conversion needs to occur. This process is called analog to digital conversion (ADC).

What is Computers Gadget?

Initially, the computer was conceived as a device to manipulate numbers and solve arithmetical problems. During its development, it was recognized that a machine capable of manipulating numbers could also be used to manipulate any "symbol" represented in numeric form. An electronic data processing system (EDPS) involves at least three basic elements: the input entering the system, or source data; the orderly processing that takes place within the system; and the output, or end result. The EDPS has four functional units: the input devices; the central processing unit (CPU); the storage, or memory; and the output devices.

The central processing unit (CPU) is the control center of the EDPS, and it has two parts: the "arithmetic/logic unit" (ALU) and the "control unit." The ALU performs operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; as well as moving, shifting, and comparing data. The control section of the CPU directs and coordinates all the operations of the computer according to the conditions set forth by the stored program. It selects instructions from the stored program and interprets them. It then generates signals and commands that cause other system units to perform certain operations at appropriate times. It controls the input/output units, the arithmetic-logic operations of the CPU, and the transfer of data to and from storage. It acts as a central nervous system, but performs no actual processing operations on data.

Storage Devices. The main storage of a computer—the memory, or internal storage unit— is basically an electronic filing cabinet where each location is capable of holding data and instructions. The storage unit contains four elements: (1) all data being held for processing, (2) the data being processed, (3) the final result of processing until it is released as output, and (4) all the program instructions while processing is being carried out. Each location in main storage is identified by a particular address. Using this address, the control section can readily locate data and instructions as needed. The size or capacity of main storage determines the amount of data and instructions that can be held within the system at any one time. In summary, the internal memory is a temporary storage and is called "random access memory" (RAM). There is also a second type of memory, called "read-only memory" (ROM). This memory is fixed; meaning it can be read but cannot be written to, changed, or deleted. There are also secondary memory devices or auxiliary storage, sometimes called "sequential access memory," such as diskettes, hard drives, and magnetic tape. Depending on how often the data will be used these auxiliary devices will be chosen. For example, mass storage devices or certain types of tapes may be used for archival purposes of medical records or bank accounts, where certain legal aspects of the data may be required.

Input/Output (I/O) Devices. These are devices that are linked to the computer and can introduce data into the system, and devices that can accept data after it has been processed. Some examples are: disk storage drives, printers, magnetic tape units, display stations, data transmission units, and the old punched card or paper tape. Input devices perform the function of converting the data from a form that is intelligible to the user to a form that is intelligible to the computer. Output, on the other hand, is data that has been processed, (e.g., shown on a display device). In some cases, a printer can readily display the data in an understandable form. In other instances, such as with a magnetic tape drive, the data is carried as input for further processing by another device. In this case, the computer retains the data until further processing takes place. In summary, a digital computer identifies an electronic device capable of manipulating bits of information under the control-sequenced instructions stored within the memory of the device. Some common forms of storing data today include: floppy disks (used mainly for temporary storage); magnetic disks (fixed or removable); and optical disks that can store very large amounts of data. CD-ROM (compact disk— read only memory) devices store the information by means of a finely focused laser beam that detects reflections from the disc. This technology is sometimes referred by the term "write once, read many times" (WORM).

Computer System. The computer elements described thus far are known as "hardware." A computer system has three parts: the hardware, the software, and the people who make it work. The computer software can broadly be divided in two categories: systems software and application software or programs. These systems software can be further divided into: operating systems and programming languages. A computer program is a set of commands (in the form of numeric codes) that is put into the computer's memory to direct its operation. Testing, or debugging, is done to check if a program works properly. The ongoing process of correcting errors and modifying working programs is called software maintenance. The science of software engineering has provided formal methods for writing and testing programs.

What is Computers Gadget?

Initially, the computer was conceived as a device to manipulate numbers and solve arithmetical problems. During its development, it was recognized that a machine capable of manipulating numbers could also be used to manipulate any "symbol" represented in numeric form. An electronic data processing system (EDPS) involves at least three basic elements: the input entering the system, or source data; the orderly processing that takes place within the system; and the output, or end result. The EDPS has four functional units: the input devices; the central processing unit (CPU); the storage, or memory; and the output devices.

The central processing unit (CPU) is the control center of the EDPS, and it has two parts: the "arithmetic/logic unit" (ALU) and the "control unit." The ALU performs operations such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division; as well as moving, shifting, and comparing data. The control section of the CPU directs and coordinates all the operations of the computer according to the conditions set forth by the stored program. It selects instructions from the stored program and interprets them. It then generates signals and commands that cause other system units to perform certain operations at appropriate times. It controls the input/output units, the arithmetic-logic operations of the CPU, and the transfer of data to and from storage. It acts as a central nervous system, but performs no actual processing operations on data.

Storage Devices. The main storage of a computer—the memory, or internal storage unit— is basically an electronic filing cabinet where each location is capable of holding data and instructions. The storage unit contains four elements: (1) all data being held for processing, (2) the data being processed, (3) the final result of processing until it is released as output, and (4) all the program instructions while processing is being carried out. Each location in main storage is identified by a particular address. Using this address, the control section can readily locate data and instructions as needed. The size or capacity of main storage determines the amount of data and instructions that can be held within the system at any one time. In summary, the internal memory is a temporary storage and is called "random access memory" (RAM). There is also a second type of memory, called "read-only memory" (ROM). This memory is fixed; meaning it can be read but cannot be written to, changed, or deleted. There are also secondary memory devices or auxiliary storage, sometimes called "sequential access memory," such as diskettes, hard drives, and magnetic tape. Depending on how often the data will be used these auxiliary devices will be chosen. For example, mass storage devices or certain types of tapes may be used for archival purposes of medical records or bank accounts, where certain legal aspects of the data may be required.

Input/Output (I/O) Devices. These are devices that are linked to the computer and can introduce data into the system, and devices that can accept data after it has been processed. Some examples are: disk storage drives, printers, magnetic tape units, display stations, data transmission units, and the old punched card or paper tape. Input devices perform the function of converting the data from a form that is intelligible to the user to a form that is intelligible to the computer. Output, on the other hand, is data that has been processed, (e.g., shown on a display device). In some cases, a printer can readily display the data in an understandable form. In other instances, such as with a magnetic tape drive, the data is carried as input for further processing by another device. In this case, the computer retains the data until further processing takes place. In summary, a digital computer identifies an electronic device capable of manipulating bits of information under the control-sequenced instructions stored within the memory of the device. Some common forms of storing data today include: floppy disks (used mainly for temporary storage); magnetic disks (fixed or removable); and optical disks that can store very large amounts of data. CD-ROM (compact disk— read only memory) devices store the information by means of a finely focused laser beam that detects reflections from the disc. This technology is sometimes referred by the term "write once, read many times" (WORM).

Computer System. The computer elements described thus far are known as "hardware." A computer system has three parts: the hardware, the software, and the people who make it work. The computer software can broadly be divided in two categories: systems software and application software or programs. These systems software can be further divided into: operating systems and programming languages. A computer program is a set of commands (in the form of numeric codes) that is put into the computer's memory to direct its operation. Testing, or debugging, is done to check if a program works properly. The ongoing process of correcting errors and modifying working programs is called software maintenance. The science of software engineering has provided formal methods for writing and testing programs.

What Is The Definition OF Information Technology?

The field of engineering involving computer-based hardware and software systems, and communication systems, to enable the acquisition, representation, storage, transmission, and use of information. Successful implementation of information technology (IT) is dependent upon being able to cope with the overall architecture of systems, their interfaces with humans and organizations, and their relationships with external environments. It is also critically dependent on the ability to successfully convert information into knowledge.

Information technology is concerned with improvements in a variety of human and organizational problem-solving endeavors through the design, development, and use of technologically based systems and processes that enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of information in a variety of strategic, tactical, and operational situations. Ideally, this is accomplished through critical attention to the information needs of humans in problem-solving tasks and in the provision of technological aids, including electronic communication and computer-based systems of hardware and software and associated processes. Information technology complements and enhances traditional engineering through emphasis on the information basis for engineering.
The knowledge and skills required in information technology come from the applied engineering sciences, especially information, computer, and systems engineering sciences, and from professional practice. Professional activities in information technology and in the acquisition of information technology systems range from requirements definition or specification, to conceptual and functional design and development of communication and computer-based systems for information support. They are concerned with such topics as architectural definition and evaluation. These activities include integration of new systems into functionally operational existing systems and maintenance of the result as user needs change over time. This human interaction with systems and processes, and the associated information processing activities, may take several diverse forms. See also Reengineering; Systems architecture; Systems engineering.



The hardware and software of computing and communications form the basic tools for information technology. These are implemented as information technology systems through use of systems engineering processes. While information technology and information systems engineering does indeed enable better designs of systems and existing organizations, it also enables the design of fundamentally new organizations and systems such as virtual corporations. Thus, efforts in this area include not only interactivity in working with clients to satisfy present needs but also awareness of future technological, organizational, and human concerns so as to support transition over time to new information technology-based services.

What Is The Definition OF Information Technology?

The field of engineering involving computer-based hardware and software systems, and communication systems, to enable the acquisition, representation, storage, transmission, and use of information. Successful implementation of information technology (IT) is dependent upon being able to cope with the overall architecture of systems, their interfaces with humans and organizations, and their relationships with external environments. It is also critically dependent on the ability to successfully convert information into knowledge.

Information technology is concerned with improvements in a variety of human and organizational problem-solving endeavors through the design, development, and use of technologically based systems and processes that enhance the efficiency and effectiveness of information in a variety of strategic, tactical, and operational situations. Ideally, this is accomplished through critical attention to the information needs of humans in problem-solving tasks and in the provision of technological aids, including electronic communication and computer-based systems of hardware and software and associated processes. Information technology complements and enhances traditional engineering through emphasis on the information basis for engineering.
The knowledge and skills required in information technology come from the applied engineering sciences, especially information, computer, and systems engineering sciences, and from professional practice. Professional activities in information technology and in the acquisition of information technology systems range from requirements definition or specification, to conceptual and functional design and development of communication and computer-based systems for information support. They are concerned with such topics as architectural definition and evaluation. These activities include integration of new systems into functionally operational existing systems and maintenance of the result as user needs change over time. This human interaction with systems and processes, and the associated information processing activities, may take several diverse forms. See also Reengineering; Systems architecture; Systems engineering.



The hardware and software of computing and communications form the basic tools for information technology. These are implemented as information technology systems through use of systems engineering processes. While information technology and information systems engineering does indeed enable better designs of systems and existing organizations, it also enables the design of fundamentally new organizations and systems such as virtual corporations. Thus, efforts in this area include not only interactivity in working with clients to satisfy present needs but also awareness of future technological, organizational, and human concerns so as to support transition over time to new information technology-based services.

Basic Information About Information Technology

(It is important to note and understand that, while some organizations are more established than others, no one organization has yet to establish itself as the definitive source for all Information Technology content and material. However, all provide important pieces to a greater puzzle that represents the evolution of the industry, throughout the decades.)

As it pertains to organizations within enterprises, IT represents an operational group that helps solve such problems as those related to Data, Information and Knowledge capture, persistence, processing, brokering, discovery and rendering. Such organizations can be as small as one or two people that can be shared between multiple small business and as large as multi-billion dollar structures that are common in all Fortune 500 enterprises.

Today, the term information has ballooned to encompass many aspects of computing and technology, and the term has become very recognizable. IT professionals perform a variety of functions (IT Disciplines/Competencies) that range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as the management and administration of entire systems. Information technology is starting to spread farther than the conventional personal computer and network technology, and more into integrations of other technologies such as the use of cell phones, televisions, automobiles, and more, which is increasing the demand for such jobs.

When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is information technology, sometimes called "infotech."Information technology is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce, manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information.

In the recent past, ABET and the ACM have collaborated to form accreditation and curriculum standards for degrees in Information Technology as a distinct field of study separate from both Computer Science and Information Systems. SIGITE is the ACM working group for defining these standards. The Worldwide IT services revenue totaled $763 billion in 2009

It is important to consider the overall value chain in technology development projects as the challenge for the value creation is increasing with the growing competitiveness between organizations that has become evident (Bird, 2010). The concept of value creation through technology is heavily dependent upon the alignment of technology and business strategies. While the value creation for an organization is a network of relationships between internal and external environments, technology plays an important role in improving the overall value chain of an organization. However, this increase requires business and technology management to work as a creative, synergistic, and collaborative team instead of a purely mechanistic span of control. Technology can help the organization recognize improved competitive advantage within the industry it resides and generate superior performance at a greater value, according to Bird.

Synonyms

Common interchangeable terms used for Information Technology include but are not limited to:

• Information Systems (IS)
• Information Sciences (IS)
• Information Management (IM)
• Management & Information Sciences (MIS)

Basic Information About Information Technology

(It is important to note and understand that, while some organizations are more established than others, no one organization has yet to establish itself as the definitive source for all Information Technology content and material. However, all provide important pieces to a greater puzzle that represents the evolution of the industry, throughout the decades.)

As it pertains to organizations within enterprises, IT represents an operational group that helps solve such problems as those related to Data, Information and Knowledge capture, persistence, processing, brokering, discovery and rendering. Such organizations can be as small as one or two people that can be shared between multiple small business and as large as multi-billion dollar structures that are common in all Fortune 500 enterprises.

Today, the term information has ballooned to encompass many aspects of computing and technology, and the term has become very recognizable. IT professionals perform a variety of functions (IT Disciplines/Competencies) that range from installing applications to designing complex computer networks and information databases. A few of the duties that IT professionals perform may include data management, networking, engineering computer hardware, database and software design, as well as the management and administration of entire systems. Information technology is starting to spread farther than the conventional personal computer and network technology, and more into integrations of other technologies such as the use of cell phones, televisions, automobiles, and more, which is increasing the demand for such jobs.

When computer and communications technologies are combined, the result is information technology, sometimes called "infotech."Information technology is a general term that describes any technology that helps to produce, manipulate, store, communicate, and/or disseminate information.

In the recent past, ABET and the ACM have collaborated to form accreditation and curriculum standards for degrees in Information Technology as a distinct field of study separate from both Computer Science and Information Systems. SIGITE is the ACM working group for defining these standards. The Worldwide IT services revenue totaled $763 billion in 2009

It is important to consider the overall value chain in technology development projects as the challenge for the value creation is increasing with the growing competitiveness between organizations that has become evident (Bird, 2010). The concept of value creation through technology is heavily dependent upon the alignment of technology and business strategies. While the value creation for an organization is a network of relationships between internal and external environments, technology plays an important role in improving the overall value chain of an organization. However, this increase requires business and technology management to work as a creative, synergistic, and collaborative team instead of a purely mechanistic span of control. Technology can help the organization recognize improved competitive advantage within the industry it resides and generate superior performance at a greater value, according to Bird.

Synonyms

Common interchangeable terms used for Information Technology include but are not limited to:

• Information Systems (IS)
• Information Sciences (IS)
• Information Management (IM)
• Management & Information Sciences (MIS)

What Is Information technology (IT)?

As supported by multiple references, cited below, there are three known categorical definitions for the term Information technology (IT).

1. As it pertains to technology, Information Technology (IT) is the "technology" used for the study, understanding, planning, design, construction, testing, distribution, support and operations of software, computers and computer related systems that exist for the purpose of Data, Information and Knowledge processing.
2. As it pertains to industry, Information Technology (IT) is the "industry" that has evolved to include the study, science, and solution sets for all aspects of Data, Information and Knowledge management and/or processing.
3. As it pertains to organizations or organizational structures, Information Technology (IT) is the organization in an enterprise or business that is held responsible and accountable for the technology used for planning, design, construction, testing, distribution, support and operations of software, computers and computer related systems that exist for the purpose of Data, Information and Knowledge management and/or processing.

What Is Information technology (IT)?

As supported by multiple references, cited below, there are three known categorical definitions for the term Information technology (IT).

1. As it pertains to technology, Information Technology (IT) is the "technology" used for the study, understanding, planning, design, construction, testing, distribution, support and operations of software, computers and computer related systems that exist for the purpose of Data, Information and Knowledge processing.
2. As it pertains to industry, Information Technology (IT) is the "industry" that has evolved to include the study, science, and solution sets for all aspects of Data, Information and Knowledge management and/or processing.
3. As it pertains to organizations or organizational structures, Information Technology (IT) is the organization in an enterprise or business that is held responsible and accountable for the technology used for planning, design, construction, testing, distribution, support and operations of software, computers and computer related systems that exist for the purpose of Data, Information and Knowledge management and/or processing.

What are the practical work and purpose of Cookie?

WHAT IS COOKIE> THEIR PRACTICAL WORK AND MUCH MORE 

What is a Cookie?
The word "cookie" has a wholesome, benign connotation, but there are rumors that imply computer cookies are invasive and dangerous. So let's take a look at what a cookie is and investigate both the advantages and disadvantages of cookies.


Cookies are employed when you use your browser to visit websites on the Internet. The two main browsers?Internet Explorer and Mozilla Firefox?both allow the use of cookies. Cookie files allow a web server to store information about you on your computer, and to retrieve that information to identify you in the future.


A cookie is a tiny piece of text that is placed on your hard drive. Its job is to record bits of information such as the pages you've visited, items you've put into an online shopping cart, and your username and password.
Practical Uses for Cookies Cookies were created to maintain user information and to customize websites. In many cases, they make it easier to navigate and use the Internet. For instance, upon your first visit to a site, you are often asked to register by giving your name and password for access to that site.

The site will then place a cookie on your hard drive, which contains that information. When you return to that site, the cookie is retrieved and read and the website "recognizes" you as an authorized guest. This means that you only have to register once, instead of having to enter information every time you access the site.


Because cookies allow a site to know who you are, they can customize information for you. It's like having a door attendant recognize you, greet you by name, and ask about your family. Or like going into a store where the salesperson knows you personally and knows your preferences so he or she is able to present you with customized merchandise in order to make your shopping easier.


What Information can a Cookie Extract? Cookies cannot be used to get data or view data off your hard drive. Cookies do not give anyone access to your computer or any personal information about you unless you have given that information to the website by answering questions or filling in a form.


For example, the site cannot determine your email account or your address unless you gave it to them. Cookies cannot give your computer a virus. Allowing a website to create a cookie does not give that or any other site access to the rest of your computer. Only the site that created the cookie can read it. And yet, cookies have a very bad reputation.


Loss of Privacy The reason that cookies have gotten so much bad press recently is that they represent a potential loss of privacy. By design, they are meant to work invisibly. They are used to track people and their activities, so that makes many people uncomfortable.


Cookies can potentially be used to build detailed profiles of your interests, spending habits, and lifestyle. An innocent use of this information might be to target advertising campaigns to specific groups or individuals.


However, it is scary to contemplate the fact that some individual or group might be able to accumulate information about our private activities and personal preferences. There is a possibility that some unscrupulous group could potentially accumulate such information and sell it to companies to be used for their own purposes.


Cookies are like a personal tag or tracer. Some people see this as very invasive to their privacy. However, you must realize that every time you log on to a website, you give away a lot of information. Any website that you visit can determine your:




* Service provider






* Operating System






* Browser type






* CPU type






* IP address




Cookie Use is Something to Ponder About 

The main concern about cookies is that they work without anyone's knowledge or permission. Some people consider the use of this information harmless, but some find the gathering of information in this manner invasive to their privacy. I personally do not mind the use of cookies, but I fear that this loss of privacy, however small, may lead to more loss of privacy as technology continues its onward march into our lives.


Risk
If you are concerned about accepting cookies, you can change the settings in your browser regarding them. Look through the menus and find the "Preference" or "Options" choice to change the setting. Most versions of Mozilla Firefox and Internet Explorer have different settings for cookie acceptance. You can disable all cookies, accept all cookies, or have the browser warn you before accepting a cookie.


Newer versions of Internet Explorer go one step further. They allow you to specify different settings for different security zones. For example, you might want to allow websites to create cookies if they are in your trusted sites, but prompt you before creating cookies if they are in your Internet zone, and never allow cookies if they are in your restricted sites zone.


While this approach is more complicated for the end user, it does give you more control over the use of cookies. So if you are concerned about cookies, using one of these newer browser versions may be helpful to you.